캅카스

남캅카스의 정치적 지도

캅카스 지역의 1994년 지도. 이 지역의 많은 주들에 의해 공유되는 값비싼 자원의 위치들을 포함한다. 자원들은 알루미늄, 금, 크로뮴, 철광석, 수은, 마그네슘, 몰리브데넘, 납, 텅스텐, 아연, 석유, 천연 가스 등이 있다.

• 아르메니아
• 아제르바이잔 (논쟁되는 나고르노카라바흐를 포함)
• 조지아(논쟁되는 압하지아와 남오세티아를 포함)

목차 1 어원 2 지리와 자연환경 3 역사 4 인구 통계와 언어 5 신화 6 에너지와 광물 자원 7 같이보기 8 참고 문헌과 주석 9 바깥 고리 10 더 보기 [편집] 어원 단어 캅카스는 북부 코카서스인들의 조상이라고 알려진, 카우카스로부터 유래했다.[1]그는 토가마흐의 아들로, 성경에 있는 노아의 셋째 아들 야벳의 손자이다. 레온티 므로벨리에 따르면 바벨탑이 무너지고 인류는 서로 다른 언어를 사용하도록 분할 되었는데, 토가마흐는 그의 아들 카르틀로스와 하이크 (조지아어: "ჰაოს", 하오스), 모바코스, 레코스(라크인), 헤로스(헤레티 왕국), 카브카스, 그리고 에그로스(에그리시 왕국)과, 아라라트 산과 엘브루스 산으로 추정되는, 접근하기 어려운 두 산 사이에 정착했다. [편집] 지리와 자연환경 카프카스 산맥의 저지대 지역들은 대 중동 지역에 위치해 있었다. 그들은 보통, 아시아와 유럽, 한 대륙 또는 두 대륙을 번갈아 가며 속해 있었던 카프카스의 영토들의 경계선을 알고 있었다. 코카서스의 꼭대기는 러시아의 서부 시스코카서스의 엘브루스 산(해발 5,642 미터) 이다. 그 곳은 유럽(코카서스를 포함하는 유럽으로 정의됨)에서 가장 높은 지점이다. 코카서스는 지구에서 가장 다양한 언어와 문화가 있는 지역이다. 오늘날 코카서스는 소비에트 연방이었던 그루지야, 아르메니아, 아제르바이잔의 단일민족국가로 구성된다. 러시아의 분할은 크라스노다르 지방, 스타브로폴 지방, 그리고 아디게야, 카라차이체케스시아, 남 오세티아, 인구시 공화국, 체첸의 자치 공화국, 그리고 다게스탄을 포함한다. 그 지역의 세 영토들인, 압하스, 나고르노카라바흐 그리고 남오세티야는 독립을 주장하지만 국제 사회에서는 일반적으로 단일민족국가로 정평이 나있지 않다. 코카서스는 생태학적으로 매우 중요한 지역이다. 그 지역은 6400여종의 고지대 식물의 거처이고, 그 중 1600종은 그 지방 고유의 종들이다.[2] 그 곳의 야생 생물들은 표범, 갈색 곰, 회색 늑대, 유럽들소, 동유럽 붉은사슴, 검독수리와 뿔까마귀를 포함한다. 무척추동물로는 1000여종의 거미들이 코카서스에 산다고 기록되어있다.[3] 자연 경관은 수목 한계선 위에 암석 지대의 견고한 지역들이 함께하는, 혼합수림이다. 코카서스 산들은 코카시안 양치기 개(오브챠카)의, 견종명으로도 알려져 있다. 코카서스의 북부 지역은 시스카프카스로, 남부 지역은 트랜스카프카스로 알려져 있다. 시스코카서스는 대 코카서스 산맥의 길에에서 가장 큰 부분을 포함하고 있으며, 주 코카서스 산이라고도 알려져 있다. 그 지역은 남서부 러시아와 그루지야와 아제르바이잔의 남부 지역을 포함한다. 트랜스코카서스는 러시아의 북쪽에, 흑해와 터키의 서쪽과, 카스피해의 동쪽과 이란의 남쪽을 경계로 한다. 그곳은 코카서스 산맥과 둘러싸여진 저지대를 포함한다. 아르메니아와, 아제르바이잔(남부 지역은 제외)과 그루지야(일부지역은 제외)의 모든 지역은 남 코카서스에 ㅣ있다. 캅카스 지역의 나라들 러시아의 캅카스 지역 [편집] 역사 Karte des Kaukasischen Isthmus. Entworfen und gezeichnet von J. Grassl, 1856년. 구 소련의 카프카스 관리상의 지도, 1952~1991년. BC 10,000년부터 존재하고 있는 아제르바이잔의 고부스탄 암각화 터키와 러시아의 주변에 위치한, 이 지역은 여러 세기에 걸쳐서 정치, 군사, 종교, 문화 대립과 팽창주의의 무대가 되고 있다. 이 곳의 역사 전체에 걸쳐, 코카서스는 통상적으로 이란의 세계에 합병되어 있었다. 19세기가 시작되고, 러시아 제국은 카자르부터 영토를 정복했다.[4] 그 지역의 고대 왕국들은, 다른 나라들과 함께, 아르메니아, 알바니아, 콜키스, 이베리아를 포함하고 있었다. 이 왕국들은 후일에 메디아, 아케메니드 제국, 파르티아 제국, 사산 제국을 포함하는 다양한 이란 제국에 합병된다. 그 때까지 조로아스터교가 우세한 종교가 되어갔다., 그러나 그 지역은 다른 두 종교의 변화를 거쳐야 했었다. 페르시아와 로마, 나중에는 비잔티움의 경쟁 때문에, 제국들은 나중에, 점령한 지역을 절대로 지킬수 없을 지라도, 그 지역에 두 서너번은 침입해야 했다. 그러나, 아르메니아와 조지아는 기독교의 본질이 있었기에, 기독교 신앙은 배화교적 사상을 초월하기 시작했다. 페르시아의 이슬람교 정복으로 인해, 그 지역은 아랍의 통치 아래 있었다. 아르메니아와 조지아인의 대다수는 기독교 신앙을 유지했고 조지아 왕 건설자 다윗은 무슬림을 몰아냈다. 그 지역은 후일에 셀주크, 오스만, 몽골에 의해 정복되고, 칸이 통치하는 지방 왕국이었고, 러시아에 의해 정복되기 전까지, 한때는, 다시 페르시아의 통치에 있었다. 이 지역은 단일 정치 독립체로 두번 통일 되었다. 그 때는 1918년 4월 8일부터 1918년 5월 26일까지의 러시아 내전(트랜스카프카스 민주주의 연방 공화국) 때와, 1922년 3월 12일 부터 1936년 12월 5일까지의 소비에트 통치(트랜스카프카스 SFSR)기간 동안이었다. 남부 코카서스는 고대에 스키타이의 영향권 아래 있는데, 남부 코카서스(코카서스 알바니아, 콜키스)가 페르시아 제국에 흡수된 때였다. 근대에 들어, 캅카스는 오스만 제국, 이란과 러시아의 전쟁 지역이 되었고, 마침내 후반에는 정복되었다(코카서스 전쟁 참조). 1940년대에는, 체첸과 인구시(모두 480,000명), 발카르, 카라차이, 메스케티안 투르크(120,000명), 쿠르드와 코카서스계 독일인(거의 200,000명)들은 중부 아시아와 세르비아로 추방된 집단이다. 1948년, Nicolas Werth에 따르면, 코카서스로부터 추방된 600,000명의 사람들 중에 죽은 사람의 비율은 1943~1944년에 25%에 이른다고 한다.[5] 소비에트 연방의 해체에 따라서, 조지아, 아제르바이잔 그리고 아르메니아는 1991년에 독립하게 되었다. 코카서스 지역은 소비에트 연방이 붕괴된 이래로, 다양한 영토 논쟁이 있어왔다. 그 논쟁은 나고르노-카라바흐 전쟁(1988~1994년)을 일으켰고, 오세티야-인구시 충돌(1989~1991년), 압하스 전쟁(1992~1993년), 제1차 체첸 전쟁(1994~1996년), 제2차 체첸 전쟁(1999~2009년), 2008년 남오세티아 전쟁을 일으켰다. [편집] 인구 통계와 언어 2009년 코카서스 지역의 민족언어적 집단들[6] 이 지역에 살고 있는 50개가 넘는 민족은 서로 다른 많은 언어와 어족을 이루고 있다. [7] 자그마치 세 어족이 넘는 고유한 양상을 띄고 있지만, 아르메니아어와 오세티아어과 흡사하게 인도유럽어족에 속하기도 하며, 알카타이 어족 아제르바이잔어는 그 지역에 속한다. 캅카스 어족의 언어를 사용하는 대부분의 무수히 많은 사람들은 그루지야인( 4,600,000명), 체첸인(1,500,000명), 아바르인(1,100,000명)들이다. 그루지야인들은 그들 자신의 독립국 조지아 공화국의 사람들로, 코카시아어로만 말을 하는 사람들이다. 러시아 연방 에 속하는 다른 사람들인 아디게인(아디게야), 체첸인(체체니아), 체르케스인(카라카이체르케스시아), 카바르디인(카바르디노발카리아), 인구시인(인구셰티아)들은 그들의 공화국이 있지만, 반면에 남동부 코카시아 사람들은 대부분 다게스탄에서 산다. 압하스인은 압하지아에 산다. 압하스는 사실상(데 팍토 de facto) 독립국이지만, 법률적으로는(데 유레 de jure) 그루지야에 속한 자치공화국이다. 오늘날 대부분의 남부와 서부 코카서스 사람들의 종교는 동방 정교회, 오리엔탈 정교회의 기독교이며 동부 지역에 위치한 아제르바이잔에는 역사와 관련된 순니 무슬림, 시아 이슬람교의 이슬람 교파들의 많은 신봉자들이 있다. [편집] 신화 그리스 신화에서 코카서스, 또는 코카소스는 세계를 떠받치는 기둥중에 한개이다. 현생 인류가 불을 선물로 받은 이후로, 프로메테우스는 제우스에 의해 사슬에 묶여, 독수리에게 간을 쪼아먹히기 되었다. 로마의 시인 오비드는 스키타이에 코카서스를 두고, 굶주린 이들이 사는 곳으로 상징된 춥고 거친 산으로 묘사했다. 그리스의 영웅 야손은 황금양모를 쫒아 카프카스의 서쪽 연안으로 출범했고, 그곳에서 명성높은 메데아를 만나게 된다. [편집] 에너지와 광물 자원 코카서스는 경제적으로 중요한 많은 광물들과 에너지 자원들을 가지고 있다. 알루미늄, 금, 크로뮴, 구리, 아연, 철광석, 수은, 망간, 몰리브덴, 납, 우라늄, 석회석, 석유, 천연 가스와, 석탄(무연탄과 갈탄 둘다)   Georgia (country) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Georgia(country)) Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Georgia (disambiguation). საქართველო Sakartvelo Georgia[1] Flag Coat of arms Motto: Dzala ertobashia (ძალა ერთობაშია) (English: "Strength is in Unity") Anthem: Tavisupleba (თავისუფლება) (English: "Freedom") Capital (and largest city) Tbilisi 41°43′N 44°47′E / 41.717°N 44.783°E / 41.717; 44.783 Official language(s) Georgian[2] Ethnic groups  83.8% Georgian, 6.5% Azeri, 5.7% Armenian, 1.5% Russian, 2.5% others [3] Demonym Georgian Government Unitary semi-presidential republic  -  President Mikheil Saakashvili  -  Prime Minister Nikoloz Gilauri Modern Statehood  -  Independence from Russian Empire May 26, 1918   -  Independence from the Soviet Union Declared Finalized April 9, 1991 December 25, 1991  Area  -  69,700 km2 (120th) 26,911 sq mi  Population  -  2010 estimate 4,636,400[4] (121st)  -  Density 68.1/km2 (144th) 164.2/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate  -  Total $22.443 billion[5]   -  Per capita $5,114[5]  GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate  -  Total $11.665 billion[5]   -  Per capita $2,658[5]  HDI (2010) 0.698[6] (high) (74th) Currency Lari (ლ) (GEL) Time zone UTC (UTC+4)  -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+4) Drives on the right Internet TLD .ge Calling code 995 Georgia (i /ˈdʒɔrdʒə/; Georgian: საქართველო, sak’art’velo IPA: [sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ]  ( listen)) is a sovereign state in the South Caucasus. It is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 km² and its population is almost 4.7 million. Georgia's constitution is that of a representative democracy, organized as a unitary, semi-presidential republic. It is currently a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Community of Democratic Choice, the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development, and the Asian Development Bank. The country aspires to join the North-Atlantic Treaty Organization and the European Union. The history of Georgia can be traced back to the ancient kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia. It was one of the first countries to adopt Christianity, in the early 4th century. Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 11th - 12th centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, Georgia was annexed by the Russian Empire.[7] After a brief period of independence following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia was annexed by Soviet Russia in 1921 and from 1922 to 1991 the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) was one of the fifteen federal republics of the Soviet Union. Like many post-communist countries, Georgia suffered from civil unrest and economic crisis for most of the 1990s through the Rose Revolution of 2003, after which the new government introduced democratic and economic reforms.[8] Georgia claims sovereignty over two regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which are recognised as independent by four UN member states, but are considered by Georgia to be Russian-occupied. Contents [hide] 1 Etymology and people 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Antiquity 2.3 Middle Ages 2.4 Georgia in the Russian Empire 2.5 Declaration of independence 2.6 Georgia in the Soviet Union 2.7 Georgia after restoration of independence 2.8 2008 military conflict with Russia 3 Geography and climate 3.1 Topography 3.2 Fauna 3.3 Climate 4 Regions 4.1 Autonomous republics 5 Government and politics 5.1 Human rights 6 Foreign relations 7 Military 8 Economy 9 Demographics 9.1 Education 10 Culture 10.1 Architecture and arts 10.2 Cuisine 10.3 Religion 10.4 Sports 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links [edit] Etymology and people Main article: Name of Georgia Georgia is sometimes thought to be named after St. George. 15th c. cloisonné enamel on gold. Ethnic Georgians call themselves Kartvelebi (ქართველები), their land Sakartvelo (საქართველო - meaning "a place for Kartvelians"), and their language Kartuli (ქართული). According to the ancient Georgian Chronicles, the ancestor of the Kartvelian people was Kartlos, the great grandson of the Biblical Japheth. The name Sakartvelo (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, or Iberia as it is known in sources of Eastern Roman Empire.[9] Ancient Greeks (Strabo, Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Cornelius Tacitus, etc.) referred to early eastern Georgians as Iberians (Iberoi in some Greek sources) and western Georgians as Colchians.[10] Like most native Caucasian peoples, the Georgians do not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or Asia. The Georgian language, the most pervasive of the South Caucasian languages, is neither Indo-European, Turkic nor Semitic. The present day Georgian or Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion of aboriginal, autochthonous-inhabitants with immigrants who infiltrated into South Caucasus from the direction of Anatolia in remote antiquity.[11] The ancient Jewish chronicle by Josephus mentions Georgians as Iberes who were also called Thobel Tubal.[12] The terms Georgia and Georgians appeared in Western Europe in numerous early medieval annals. The French chronicler Jacques de Vitry and the English traveler Sir John Mandeville wrote that Georgians are called Georgian because they especially revere Saint George. Notably, in January 2004 the country restored the five-cross flag, featuring the Saint George's Cross; the flag was used in Georgia from the 5th century throughout the Middle Ages.[13][14] [edit] History Main article: History of Georgia (country) 2nd century BC sculpture from Georgia, displayed at the Georgian National Museum [edit] Prehistory Main article: Prehistoric Georgia The territory of modern-day Georgia has been inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic. The proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC.[15] Archaeological finds and references in ancient sources reveal elements of early political and state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond.[15] [edit] Antiquity The classic period saw the rise of the early Georgian states Diaokhi (XIII BC) of Colchis (VIII BC), of Sper (VII BC) and of Iberia (VI BC). In the 4th century BC a unified kingdom of Georgia—an early example of advanced state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy—was established.[16] The two early Georgian kingdoms of late antiquity, known to Greco-Roman historiography as Iberia (Georgian: იბერია) (in the east of the country) and Colchis (Georgian: კოლხეთი) (in the west), were among the first nations in the region to adopt Christianity (in AD 337, or in AD 319 as recent research suggests). In Greek Mythology, Colchis was the location of the Golden Fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts in Apollonius Rhodius' epic tale Argonautica. The incorporation of the Golden Fleece into the myth may have derived from the local practice of using fleeces to sift gold dust from rivers.[17] Known to its natives as Egrisi or Lazica, Colchis was also the battlefield of the Lazic War fought between Byzantine Empire and Persia. "Pompey's Bridge", built by the Roman legionaries of Pompey during their conquests of Georgia in c.65 BC After the Roman Empire completed its conquest of the Caucasus region in 66 BC, the Georgian kingdoms were Roman client states and allies for nearly 400 years.[17] In 337 AD King Mirian III declared Christianity as the state religion, giving a great stimulus to the development of literature, arts, and ultimately playing a key role in the formation of the unified Georgian nation.[18] King Mirian III's acceptance of Christianity effectively tied the kingdom to the neighboring Eastern Roman Empire which exerted a strong influence on Georgia for nearly a millennium, determining much of its present cultural identity.[17] [edit] Middle Ages The early kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. This made it easy for Arabs to conquer parts of southeastern Georgia in the 7th century. The rebellious regions were liberated and united into a unified Georgian Kingdom at the beginning of the 11th century. Starting in the 12th century, the rule of Georgia extended over a significant part of the Southern Caucasus, including the northeastern parts and almost the entire northern coast of present-day Turkey. Although Arabs captured the capital city of Tbilisi in AD 645, Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under local Arab rulers.[17] In AD 813 the prince Ashot I - also known as Ashot Kurapalat - became the first of the Bagrationi family to rule the kingdom. Ashot's reign began a period of nearly 1,000 years during which the Bagrationi, as the house was known, ruled at least part of what is now the republic. King David the Builder, Shio-Mgvime monastery Bagrat III (r. 1027-72) united western and eastern Georgia. In the next century, David IV (called the Builder, r. 1089-1125) initiated the Georgian golden age by driving the Seljuk Turks from the country and expanding Georgian cultural and political influence southward into Armenia and eastward to the Caspian Sea.[17] The Georgian Kingdom reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries. This period has been widely termed as Georgia's Golden Age or Georgian Renaissance during the reigns of David the Builder and Queen Tamar.[19] This early Georgian renaissance, which preceded its West European analogue, was characterized by the flourishing of romantic-chivalric tradition, breakthroughs in philosophy, and an array of political innovations in society and state organization, including religious and ethnic tolerance.[20]] The Golden age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and literature, and the epic poem "The Knight in the Panther's Skin".[21] David the Builder is popularly considered to be the greatest and most successful Georgian ruler in history. He succeeded in driving the Seljuks out of the country, winning the major Battle of Didgori in 1121. His reforms of the army and administration enabled him to reunite the country and bring most lands of the Caucasus under Georgia's control. King George V the Brilliant restored Georgia as a vibrant Christian culture after the expulsion of Mongols David the Builder's granddaughter Tamar succeeded in neutralizing opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within two decades after Tamar's death. The revival of the Georgian Kingdom was set back after Tblisi was captured and destoyed by the Khwarezmian leader Mingburnu in 1236.[22] The Mongols were expelled by George V of Georgia, son of Demetrius II of Georgia, who was named "Brilliant" for his role in restoring the country's previous strength and Christian culture. George V was the last great king of the unified Georgian state. After his death, different local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the Kingdom in the 15th century. Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous invasions by Tamerlane. Neighbouring kingdoms exploited the internal division of the weakened country, and beginning in the 16th century, the Persian Empire and the Ottoman Empire subjugated the eastern and western regions of Georgia, respectively. The rulers of regions which remained partly autonomous organized rebellions on various occasions. However, subsequent Persian and Ottoman invasions further weakened local kingdoms and regions. As a result of wars the population of Georgia dwindled to 250,000 inhabitants at one point. Eastern Georgia, composed of the regions of Kartli and Kakheti, had been under Persian suzerainty since 1555. With the death of Nader Shahin 1747, both kingdoms broke free of Persian control and were reunified through a personal union under the energetic king Heraclius II in 1762. [edit] Georgia in the Russian Empire Main article: Georgia under the Russian Empire King George XI, the last Catholic King of eastern Georgia In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, which recognized the bond of Orthodox Christianity between Russian and Georgian people and promised eastern Georgia protection.[23] However, despite this commitment to defend Georgia Russia rendered no assistance when the Turks and Persians invaded in 1785 and in 1795, completely devastating Tbilisi and massacring its inhabitants. This period culminated in the 1801 Russian violation of the Treaty of Georgievsk and annexation of entire Georgian lands, followed the deposing of the Bagrationi dynasty and suppression of the Georgian church. On December 22, 1800, Tsar Paul I of Russia, at the alleged request of the Georgian King George XII, signed the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was finalized by a decree on January 8, 1801,[24][25] and confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on September 12, 1801.[26][27] The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Prince Kurakin.[28] In May 1801, Russian General Carl Heinrich Knorring dethroned the Georgian heir to the throne David Batonishvili and instituted a government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lasarev.[29] Pyotr Bagration, a man of minor Georgian nobility, joined the Russian army aged 17 as a sergeant and rose to be a general by the Napoleonic wars. The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until April 1802 when General Knorring compassed the nobility in Tbilisi's Sioni Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on the Imperial Crown of Russia. Those who disagreed were arrested temporarily.[30] In the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani River near Zagam defeated the Persian army and saved Tbilisi from conquest now that it was officially part of the Imperial territories. Western Georgian principalities of Mingrelia and Guria assumed the Russian protection in 19th century. Finally in 1810, after a brief war,[31] the western Georgian kingdom of Imereti was annexed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia. The last Imeretian king and the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler Solomon II died in exile in 1815. From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Russian wars against the Ottoman Empire, several of Georgia's previously lost territories - such as Adjara - were recovered. The principality of Guria was abolished in 1828, and that of Samegrelo (Mingrelia) in 1857. The region of Svaneti was gradually annexed in 1857–59. [edit] Declaration of independence Declaration of independence by the Georgian parliament, 1918 Main article: Democratic Republic of Georgia After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia declared independence on May 26, 1918 in the midst of the Russian Civil War. The parliamentary election was won by the Georgian Social-Democratic Party, considered to be pro-Mensheviks, and its leader, Noe Zhordania, became prime minister. In 1918 a Georgian–Armenian war erupted over parts of Georgian provinces populated mostly by Armenians which ended because of British intervention. In 1918–19 Georgian general Giorgi Mazniashvili led a Georgian attack against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in order to claim the Black Sea coastline from Tuapse to Sochi and Adler for independent Georgia. The country's independence did not last long. Georgia was under British protection from 1918-1920. [edit] Georgia in the Soviet Union Main article: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic In February 1921 Georgia was attacked by the Red Army. The Georgian army was defeated and the Social-Democrat government fled the country. On February 25, 1921 the Red Army entered the capital Tbilisi and installed a Moscow directed communist government, led by Georgian Bolshevik Filipp Makharadze. The 11th Red Army of the Russian SFSR holds military parade in Tbilisi, 25 February 1921. Nevertheless the Soviet rule was firmly established only after a 1924 revolt was brutally suppressed.[32] Georgia was incorporated into the Transcaucasian SFSR uniting Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The TSFSR was disaggregated into its component elements in 1936 and Georgia became the Georgian SSR. Joseph Stalin (an ethnic Georgian whose real name was Ioseb Jughashvili) was prominent among the Bolsheviks, who came to power in the Russian Empire after the October Revolution in 1917. Stalin was to rise to the highest position of the Soviet state. From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, almost 700,000 Georgians fought in the Red Army against Nazi Germany. (A number also fought on the German side.) About 350,000 Georgians died in the battlefields of the Eastern Front.[33] The Dissidential movement for restoration of Georgian statehood started to gain popularity in the 1960s.[34] Among the Georgian dissidents, two of the most prominent activists were Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. Dissidents were heavily persecuted by Soviet government, and their activities were harshly suppressed. On April 9, 1989, a peaceful demonstration in the Georgian capital Tbilisi ended up with several people being killed by Soviet troops. Before the October 1990 elections to the national assembly, the Umaghlesi Sabcho (Supreme Council) — the first polls in the USSR held on a formal multi-party basis — the political landscape was reshaped again. While the more radical groups boycotted the elections and convened an alternative forum with alleged support of Moscow[citation needed] (National Congress), another part of the anticommunist opposition united into the Round Table—Free Georgia (RT-FG) around the former dissidents like Merab Kostava and Zviad Gamsakhurdia. The latter won the elections by a clear margin, with 155 out of 250 parliamentary seats, whereas the ruling Communist Party (CP) received only 64 seats. All other parties failed to get over the 5%-threshold and were thus allotted only some single-member constituency seats. [edit] Georgia after restoration of independence People laying flowers at the memorial of April 9 tragedy, where over 10 women and 6 men were killed by the Soviet Army [35] On April 9, 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Georgia declared independence. On May 26, 1991, Zviad Gamsakhurdia was elected as a first President of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisi's authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South Ossetia that had been classified as autonomous oblasts under the Soviet Union. He was soon deposed in a bloody coup d'état, from December 22, 1991 to January 6, 1992. The coup was instigated by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary organization called "Mkhedrioni" or "horsemen". The country became embroiled in a bitter civil war which lasted almost until 1995. Eduard Shevardnadze returned to Georgia in 1992 and joined the leaders of the coup — Kitovani and Ioseliani — to head a triumvirate called the "State Council". In 1995, Shevardnadze was officially elected as president of Georgia. At the same time, simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, between local separatists and the majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread inter-ethnic violence and wars. Supported by Russia, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, with the exception of some "pockets" of territory, achieved de facto independence from Georgia. Roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians[36] were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasians volunteers (including Chechens) in 1992-1993. Around 23,000 Georgians[37] fled South Ossetia as well, and many Ossetian families were forced to abandon their homes in the Borjomi region and moved to Russia. In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won reelection in 2000) was deposed by the Rose Revolution, after Georgian opposition and international monitors asserted that the November 2 parliamentary elections were marred by fraud.[38] The revolution was led by Mikheil Saakashvili, Zurab Zhvania and Nino Burjanadze, former members and leaders of Shevardnadze's ruling party. Mikheil Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004. Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms were launched to strengthen the country's military and economic capabilities. The new government's efforts to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of Ajaria led to a major crisis early in 2004. Success in Ajaria encouraged Saakashvili to intensify his efforts, but without success, in the breakaway South Ossetia. These events along with accusations of Georgian involvement in the Second Chechen War,[39] resulted in a severe deterioration of relations with Russia, fuelled also by Russia's open assistance and support to the two secessionists areas. Despite these increasingly difficult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement [40] by which Russian military bases (dating back to the Soviet era) in Batumi and Akhalkalaki were withdrawn. Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007 [41] while failing to withdraw from the Gudauta base in Abkhazia which it was required to vacate after the adoption of Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the 1999 Istanbul Summit.[42] [edit] 2008 military conflict with Russia Main article: 2008 South Ossetia war See also: International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Georgian girl holding a poster and candles during the Russo-Georgian war in August of 2008. 2008 saw a military conflict between Georgia on one side, with Russia and the separatist republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia on the other. In response to the shelling of Georgian towns around South Ossetia, supposedly by South Ossetian militias well equipped with Russian military supplies, Georgia massed military forces near the region. Russia also massed larger military forces near the border with South Ossetia. On 7 August, Georgian forces began a massive artillery attack on the South Ossetian capital, Tskhinvali, which started after months-long clashes between Georgian police and peacekeepers, and Ossetian militia and Russian peacekeepers. On early August 8, Georgian Army infantry and tanks, supported by Interior Ministry commandos, began pushing into South Ossetia, supported by artillery and multiple rocket launcher fire and Su-25 strike aircraft.[43] After several hours of fierce fighting, Georgia had captured numerous villages throughout South Ossetia, and had captured almost all of Tskhinvali from Ossetian militia and Russian peacekeepers. A Russian peacekeepers' base stationed in South Ossetia was shelled, and personnel were killed.[44][45] Units of the Russian 58th Army, supported by irregular forces, subsequently entered South Ossetia through the Russian-controlled Roki tunnel, and a three-day battle left the city of Tskhinvali heavily devastated.[46][47][48] Georgian forces were driven out of South Ossetia, and Georgian villages were burned by Ossetian militia to prevent refugees from returning. The Russian Air Force launched a series of coordinated airstrikes against Georgian forces in South Ossetia, and multiple targets inside Georgia proper,[49] but met heavy resistance from Georgian air defenses. The Georgian Air Force also managed to carry out air attacks on Russian troops throughout most of the battle. At the same time, the separatist Republic of Abkhazia launched an offensive against Georgian troops in the Kodori Valley with the support of Russian paratroopers, marines, and naval forces. Georgian troops offered minimal resistance and withdrew[50][51] Russian paratroopers launched raids against military bases in Senaki, Georgia, from Abkhazia. The Russian Navy stationed a task force of sixteen ships off the coast of Abkhazia, and in a brief naval skirmish with Georgian missile boats and gunboats, sank a Georgian Coast Guard cutter. US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice holding a joint press conference with Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili during the South Ossetian war Following their defeat in South Ossetia, Georgian forces regrouped at Gori with heavy artillery. Russian forces crossed into Georgia proper, and all Georgian forces retreated to Tbilisi, leaving some military equipment behind. Russian forces entered the city and occupied numerous villages completely unopposed. Irregulars such as Ossetians, Chechens and Cossacks followed and were reported looting, killing and burning.[52][53] Russian troops removed military equipment abandoned by retreating Georgian troops in Gori, and also occupied the port city of Poti, where they sank several naval and coast guard vessesls moored in the harbor, and removed captured military equipment, including four Humvees. Georgia lost a total of 150 pieces of military equipment (including 65 tanks), 1,728 small arms, and 4 naval vessels during the war.[54] On August 12, President Medvedev announced an intent to halt further Russian military operations in Georgia.[55] Russian troops withdrew from Gori and Poti, but remained in South Ossetia and Abkhazia,[56][57] which it recognized as independent countries.[58] Georgia, on the contrary, considers them territories under Russian occupation.[59][60] Russia also created temporary checkpoints in several locations inside Georgia, but gradually withdrew from them. Because of the intensive fighting in South Ossetia there were many disputed reports about the number of casualties on both sides, which targets had fallen under aerial attacks, the status of troop movements, and the most current location of the front line between the Georgian and Russian-Ossetian combat units.[61] South Ossetian and Russian officials claimed[47] the Georgian Army was responsible for killing 2,000, and later 1,400 South Ossetian civilians. These allegations have not been substantiated, and Human Rights Watch and European Union investigators in South Ossetia accused Russia of exaggerating the scale of such casualties.[62] The actual death toll, according to the Russian Prosecutor's Office, is 162.[63] Another 150 South Ossetian militiamen were also killed.[64] Russian casualties totalled 67 dead or missing, and 323 wounded.[65] Abkhaz forces lost 1 dead and 2 wounded. Georgian military casualties totaled 170 dead or missing,[66] 1,964 wounded, and 42 taken prisoner. Georgian civilian casualties stand at 228, with a total of 12 police officers killed or missing. A Dutch journalist Stan Storimans was also killed. [edit] Geography and climate Main article: Geography of Georgia (country) See also: Borders of the continents Svaneti region, North-Western Georgia. Georgia lies between latitudes 41° and 44° N, and longitudes 40° and 47° E, with an area of 67,900 km2 (26,216 sq mi). It is a very mountainous country. The Likhi Range divides the country into eastern and western halves.[67] Historically, the western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while the eastern plateau was called Iberia. Because of a complex geographic setting, mountains also isolate the northern region of Svaneti from the rest of Georgia. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the northern border of Georgia.[67] The main roads through the mountain range into Russian territory lead through the Roki Tunnel between South and North Ossetia and the Darial Gorge (in the Georgian region of Khevi). The Roki Tunnel was vital for the Russian military in the 2008 South Ossetia War.[citation needed] The southern portion of the country is bounded by the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.[67] The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 meters (16,404 ft) above sea level. The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at 5,068 meters (16,627 ft), and the second highest is Mount Janga (Jangi-Tau) at 5,059 m (16,598 ft) above sea level. Other prominent peaks include Kazbegi (Kazbek) at 5,047 m (16,558 ft), Shota Rustaveli (4,860 m (15,945 ft)), Tetnuldi (4,858 m (15,938 ft)), Mt. Ushba (4,700 m (15,420 ft)), and Ailama (4,547 m (14,918 ft)).[67] Out of the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbegi is of volcanic origin. The region between Kazbegi and Shkhara (a distance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers. Out of the 2,100 glaciers that exist in the Caucasus today, approximately 30% are located within Georgia. Mountainous valleys of Northern Georgia The term, Lesser Caucasus Mountains is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.[67] The area can be split into two separate sub-regions; the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the Greater Caucasus Range, and the Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland, which lies immediately to the south of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains. The overall region can be characterized as being made up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400 meters (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the area include the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, including Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and hot springs. Two major rivers in Georgia are the Rioni and the Mtkvari. The Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland is a young and unstable geologic region with high seismic activity and has experienced some of the most significant earthquakes that have been recorded in Georgia. The Voronya Cave (aka Krubera-Voronia Cave) is the deepest known cave in the world. It is located in the Arabika Massif of the Gagra Range, in Abkhazia. In 2001, a Russian–Ukrainian team had set the world depth record for a cave at 1,710 meters (5,610 ft). In 2004, the penetrated depth was increased on each of three expeditions, when a Ukrainian team crossed the 2,000-meter (6,562 ft) mark for the first time in the history of speleology. In October 2005, an unexplored part was found by the CAVEX team, further increasing the known depth of the cave. This expedition confirmed the known depth of the cave at 2,140 meters (7,021 ft) (±9 m/29.5 ft). [edit] Topography The landscape within the nation's boundaries is quite varied. Western Georgia's landscape ranges from low-land marsh-forests, swamps, and temperate rain forests to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains. Forests cover around 40% of Georgia's territory while the alpine/subalpine zone accounts for roughly around 10% of the land. Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of Western Georgia has disappeared over the last 100 years because of the agricultural development of the land and urbanization. The large majority of the forests that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually non-existent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g. Lake Paliastomi area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 meters (1,969 ft) above sea level and comprise of species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. Evergreen species such as box may also be found in many areas. Ca. 1000 of all 4000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic in this country.[68] The west-central slopes of the Meskheti Range in Ajaria as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered by temperate rain forests. Between 600–1,000 metres (1,969–3,281 ft) above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech, spruce, and fir forests. From 1,500–1,800 metres (4,921–5,906 ft), the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around 1,800 metres (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) above sea level. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies above the 3,000 metre line. Eastern Georgia's landscape (referring to the territory east of the Likhi Range) is considerably different from that of the west, although, much like the Colchis plain in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern Georgia including the Mtkvari and Alazani River plains have been deforested for agricultural purposes. In addition, because of the region's relatively drier climate, some of the low-lying plains (especially in Kartli and south-eastern Kakheti) were never covered by forests in the first place. The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85% of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen, ash, and hazelnut. The Upper Alazani River Valley contains yew forests. At higher elevations above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) above sea level (particularly in the Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500–2,000 metres (1,640–6,562 ft) above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 metres/6,562–7,546 feet to 3,000–3,500 meters/9,843–11,483 feet. The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Valley of Kakheti. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies above the 3,500-metre (11,483 ft) line in most areas of eastern Georgia. [edit] Fauna See also: List of non-marine molluscs of Georgia Golden Eagles are a yearlong presence in mountainous regions of Georgia Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude Georgia is home to about 1000 species of vertebrates, (330 birds, 160 fish, 48 reptiles, and 11 amphibians). A number of large carnivores live in the forests, namely Brown bears, wolves, and lynxes. The species number of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.[69] [edit] Climate Main article: Climate of Georgia (country) The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation's small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly separating Eastern and Western parts of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south as well. Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from 1,000–4,000 mm (39.4–157.5 in). The precipitation tends to be uniformly distributed throughout the year, although the rainfall can be particularly heavy during the Autumn months. The climate of the region varies significantly with elevation and while much of the lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters (snow cover often exceeds 2 meters in many regions). Ajaria is the wettest region of the Caucasus, where the Mt. Mtirala rainforest, east of Kobuleti receives around 4,500 mm (177.2 in) of precipitation per year. Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry, Caspian air masses from the east and humid, Black Sea air masses from the west. The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by several mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation. Annual precipitation is considerably less than that of western Georgia and ranges from 400–1,600 mm (15.7–63.0 in). The Black Sea coast of Batumi, Western Georgia. The wettest periods generally occur during Spring and Autumn while Winter and the Summer months tend to be the driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas. The regions that lie above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) frequently experience frost even during the summer months. Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude Georgia is home to a large number of animal species, e.g., about 1000 species of vertebrates (330 birds, 160 fish, 48 reptiles, 11 amphibians). A number of large carnivores live in the forests, e.g., Persian leopard, Brown bear, wolf, and lynx. The species number of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.[70] Non-marine molluscs of Georgia also include high diversity. [edit] Regions Main article: Administrative divisions of Georgia (country) Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 autonomous republics.[3] These in turn are subdivided into 69 districts. Regions of Georgia in colour with districts shown within regions Guria Imereti Kakheti Kvemo Kartli Mtskheta-Mtianeti Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti Samtskhe-Javakheti Shida Kartli [edit] Autonomous republics Main articles: Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and Autonomous Republic of Adjara Map of Georgia with the autonomous republics of Abkhazia (de facto independent) and Adjara, and South Ossetia (de facto independent region) Georgia contains two official autonomous regions, of which one has declared independence. In addition, another territory not officially autonomous has also declared independence. Officially autonomous within Georgia,[71] the de facto independent region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.[72] The de facto independent South Ossetia is officially known within Georgia as the Tskinvali region to separate it from the Russian North Ossetia.[73] It was autonomous under the Soviet Union, and when it was renamed to Tskinvali in 1995 its autonomy was removed.[74] De facto separate since Georgian independence, offers were made to give South Ossetia autonomy again, but in 2006 an unrecognised referendum in the area resulted in a vote for independence.[73] In both territories large numbers of people had been given Russian passports, some through a process of forced passportization by Russian authorities.[75] This was used as a justification for Russian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Ossetia war after which Russia recognised the regions independence.[76] Independence is denied by Georgia, which considers the regions as occupied by Russia.[77][78] Both republics have received minimal international recognition. Adjara gained autonomy unilaterally under local strongman Aslan Abashidze, who maintained close ties with Russia and allowed a Russian military base to be built in Batumi. Upon the election of Mikheil Saakashvili in 2004 tensions rose between Adjara and the Georgian government, leading to demonstrations in Adjara and the resignation and fleeing of Absahidze. The region retains autonomy.[79] [edit] Government and politics Main article: Politics of Georgia (country) The official residence and workplace of the Georgian President shown here with the Holy Trinity Cathedral in the background. Georgia is a democratic semi-presidential republic, with the President as the head of state, and Prime Minister as the head of government. The executive branch of power is made up of the President and the Cabinet of Georgia. The Cabinet is composed of ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, and appointed by the President. Notably, the ministers of defense and interior are not members of the Cabinet and are subordinated directly to the President of Georgia. Mikheil Saakashvili is the current President of Georgia after winning 53.47% of the vote in the 2008 election. Since February 6, 2009 Nikoloz Gilauri has been the prime minister of Georgia. Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of Georgia. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as deputies, from which 75 members are proportional representatives and 75 are elected through single-member district plurality system, representing their constituencies. Members of parliament are elected for 4 four-year term. Five parties and electoral blocs had representatives elected to the parliament in the 2008 elections: the United National Movement (governing party), The Joint Opposition, the Christian-Democrats, the Labour Party and Republican Party. Although considerable progress was made since the Rose revolution, Saakashvili states that Georgia is still not a "full-fledged, very well-formed, crystalized society."[80] The political system remains in the process of transition, with frequent adjustments to the balance of power between the President and Parliament, and opposition proposals ranging from transforming the country into parliamentary republic to re-establishing the monarchy.[81][82] Observers note the deficit of trust in relations between the Government and the opposition.[83] Different opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia. President Saakashvili believes that the country is "on the road to becoming a European democracy."[80] Freedom House puts Georgia in the group of partly free countries, along with countries like Turkey, Venezuela and Bosnia and Herzegovina.[84] [edit] Human rights Main article: Human rights in Georgia Human rights in Georgia are guaranteed by the country's constitution. There is an independent human rights public defender elected by the Parliament of Georgia to ensure such rights are enforced.[85] Georgia has ratified the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2005. NGO "Tolerance" in its alternative report about its implementation speaks of rapid decreasing of the amount of Azerbaijani schools and cases of appointing headmasters to Azerbaijani schools who don't speak the Azerbaijani language.[86] [edit] Foreign relations Main articles: Georgia and the European Union, Georgian-Ukrainian relations, Georgia-Russia relations, and Georgia and NATO pro-NATO poster in Tbilisi Georgia maintains good relations with its direct neighbours Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkey and participates actively in regional organizations, such as the Black Sea Economic Council and the GUAM.[citation needed] Georgia also maintains political, economic and military relations with Japan, Uruguay,[87] South Korea,[88] Israel,[89] Sri Lanka[90] Ukraine and many other countries. The growing U.S. and European Union influence in Georgia, notably through proposed EU and NATO membership, the U.S. Train and Equip military assistance program and the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, have frequently strained Tbilisi's relations with Moscow. Georgia's decision to boost its presence in the coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.[91] Georgia is currently working to become a full member of NATO. In August 2004, the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO. On October 29, 2004, the North Atlantic Council of NATO approved the Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) of Georgia and Georgia moved on to the second stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration. In 2005, by the decision of the President of Georgia, a state commission was set up to implement the Individual Partnership Action Plan, which presents an interdepartmental group headed by the Prime Minister. The Commission was tasked with coordinating and controlling the implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan. On February 14, 2005, the agreement on the appointment of Partnership for Peace (PfP) liaison officer between Georgia and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization came into force, whereby a liaison officer for the South Caucasus was assigned to Georgia. On March 2, 2005, the agreement was signed on the provision of the host nation support to and transit of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On March 6–9, 2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team arrived in Tbilisi. On April 13, 2006, the discussion of the assessment report on implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Headquarters, within 26+1 format.[92] In 2006, the Georgian parliament voted unanimously for the bill which calls for integration of Georgia into NATO. The majority of Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for NATO membership. From the European commission website: President Saakashvili views membership of the EU and NATO as a long term priority. As he does not want Georgia to become an arena of Russia-U.S. confrontation he seeks to maintain close relations with the United States and European Union, at the same time underlining his ambitions to advance co-operation with Russia.[citation needed] George W. Bush became the first sitting U.S. president to visit the country.[93] The street leading to Tbilisi International Airport has since been dubbed George W. Bush Avenue.[94] On October 2, 2006, Georgian and the European Union signed a joint statement on the agreed text of the Georgia-European Union Action Plan within the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP). The Action Plan was formally approved at the EU-Georgia Cooperation Council session on November 14, 2006 in Brussels.[95] [edit] Military Main article: Military of Georgia Georgian troops in Iraq, 2006. Georgia's military is organized into land and air forces. They are collectively known as the Georgian Armed Forces (GAF).[96] The mission and functions of the GAF are based on the Constitution of Georgia, Georgia’s Law on Defense and National Military Strategy, and international agreements to which Georgia is signatory. They are performed under the guidance and authority of the Ministry of Defense. Since coming to power in 2004, Saakashvili has boosted spending on the country's armed forces and increased its overall size to around 45,000.[citation needed] Of that figure, 12,000 have been trained in advanced techniques by U.S. military instructors, under the Georgia Train and Equip Program. Some of these troops have been stationed in Iraq as part of the international coalition in the region, serving in Baqubah and the Green Zone of Baghdad. In May 2005, the 13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion became the first full battalion to serve outside of Georgia. This unit was responsible for two checkpoints to the Green Zone, and provided security for the Iraqi Parliament. In October 2005, the unit was replaced by the 21st Infantry Battalion. Soldiers of the 13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion wear the "combat patches" of the American unit they served under, the Third Infantry Division. Since 2009, Georgia contributes nearly 1000 soldiers to the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, making it the highest per-capita troop contributor to the mission.[97] As of March 2011, Georgian forces have suffered a total of 7 deaths and 39 injuries.[98] [edit] Economy Main articles: Economy of Georgia (country) and Agriculture in Georgia (country) Georgian twenty lari note. Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires since the ancient times, largely due its location on the Black Sea and later on the historical Silk Road. Gold, silver, copper and iron have been mined in the Caucasus Mountains. Wine making is a very old tradition. The country has sizable hydropower resources.[99] Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography.[100] For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the Soviet model of command economy. Since the fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to a free market economy. As with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.[101] The first financial help from the West came in 1995, when the World Bank and International Monetary Fund granted Georgia a credit of USD 206 million and Germany granted DM 50 million. Rkinis Rigi (iron row) in Old Tbilisi Since early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007 Georgia's real GDP growth rate reached 12%, making Georgia one of the fastest growing economies in Eastern Europe.[100] The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms of ease of doing business.,[102] The country has a high unemployment rate of 12.6% and has fairly low median income compared to European countries. The 2006 ban on imports of Georgian wine to Russia, one of Georgia's biggest trading partners, and break of financial links was described by the IMF Mission as an "external shock",[103] In addition, Russia increased the price of gas for Georgia. This was followed by the spike in the Georgian lari's rate of inflation.[citation needed] The National Bank of Georgia stated that the inflation was mainly triggered by external reasons, including Russia’s economic embargo.[104] The Georgian authorities expected that the current account deficit due to the embargo in 2007 would be financed by "higher foreign exchange proceeds generated by the large inflow of foreign direct investment" and an increase in tourist revenues.[105] The country has also maintained a solid credit in international market securities.[106] Georgia is becoming more integrated into the global trading network: its 2006 imports and exports account for 10% and 18% of GDP respectively.[100] Georgia's main imports are natural gas, oil products, machinery and parts, and transport equipment. Map of the BTC oil pipeline and South Caucasus gas pipeline. Since coming to power Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things a flat income tax was introduced in 2004[107] As a result budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large budget deficit has turned into surplus.[108][109][110] Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through Batumi and Poti ports, an oil pipeline from Baku through Tbilisi to Ceyhan, the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline. Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Georgian economy. About a million tourists brought US$313 million to the country in 2006.[111] According to the government, there are 103 resorts in different climatic zones in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2000 mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati Monastery, historical monuments of Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti).[112] As of 2001 54% of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34%. In 2005 average monthly income of a household was GEL 347 (about 200 USD).[113] IMF 2007 estimates place Georgia's nominal GDP at US$10.3 billion. Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted to services (now representing 65% of GDP), moving away from agricultural sector ( 10.9%).[114] [edit] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Georgia Ethnic Georgians form about 83.8% of Georgia's current population of 4,661,473 (July 2006 est.).[115] Other ethnic groups include Abkhazians, Armenians, Azeris, Belorussians, Bulgarians, Chechens, Estonians, Germans, Greeks, Jews, Kurds, Moldovans, Ossetians, Poles, Russians, Tatars, Turks and Ukrainians. Notably, Georgia's Jewish community is one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. Georgia also exhibits significant linguistic diversity. Within the Kartvelian family, Georgian, Laz, Megrelian, and Svan are spoken.[116] The official languages of Georgia are Georgian and also Abkhaz within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian, the country's official language, is a primary language of approximately 71% of the population, with 9% speaking Russian, 7% Armenian, 6% Azeri, and 7% other languages.[100] In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, violent separatist conflicts broke out in the autonomous regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly to Russia's North Ossetia.[117] On the other hand, more than 150,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the breakout of hostilities in 1993.[118] Of the Meskhetian Turks who were forcibly relocated in 1944 only a tiny fraction returned to Georgia as of 2008.[119] The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3% of the population,[120] 52,000 Ukrainians and 100,000 Greeks in Georgia.[121] Since 1990, 1.5 million Georgian nationals have left.[121] At least one million immigrants from Georgia legally or illegally reside in Russia.[122] Georgia's net migration rate is -4.54, excluding Georgian nationals who live abroad. Georgia has nonetheless been inhabited by immigrants from all over the world throughout its independence. According to 2006 statistics, Georgia gets most of its immigrants from Turkey and People's Republic of China. Today most of the population practices Eastern Orthodox Christianity with 83.9% of the population adhering to the national Georgian Orthodox Church. Religious minorities include Muslims (9.9%); Armenian Apostolic (3.9%); Roman Catholic (0.8%). 0.8% of those recorded in the 2002 census declared themselves to be adherents of other religions and 0.7% declared no religion at all.[100][123] List of cities in Georgia Tbilisi Kutaisi Rustavi Batumi Rank City Population Zugdidi Poti Gori Senaki 1 Tbilisi 1,240,508 2 Kutaisi 202,443 3 Rustavi 126,018 4 Batumi 125,552 5 Zugdidi 95,131 6 Poti 52,000 7 Gori 48,929 8 Sukhumi 40,128 9 Senaki 32,284 10 Samtredia 31,452 [edit] Education The education system of Georgia has undergone sweeping modernizing, although controversial, reforms since 2004.[124][125] Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14.[126] The school system is divided into elementary (6 years; age level 6-12), basic (3 years; age level 12-15), and secondary (3 years; age level 15-18), or alternatively vocational studies (2 years). Students with a secondary school certificate have access to higher education. Only the students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of scores he/she received at the exams. Most of these institutions offer three level studies: a Bachelor's Programme (3–4 years); a Master's Programme (2 years), and a Doctoral Programme (3 years). There is also a Certified Specialist's Programme that represents a single-level higher education programme lasting for 3–6 years.[126][127] As of 2008, 20 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.[128] Gross primary enrollment ratio was 94% for the period of 2001-2006.[129] [edit] Culture Main article: Culture of Georgia (country) Medieval Georgian Processional cross, 12th century Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years with its foundations in Iberian and Colchian civilizations,[130] continuing into the rise of the unified Georgian Kingdom under the single monarchy of the Bagrationi. Georgian culture enjoyed a golden age and renaissance of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century.[131] The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the foundations of the romantics and novelists of the modern era such as Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili, Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, Vazha Pshavela, and many others.[132] Georgian culture was influenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, and later by the Russian Empire. Georgia is well known for its rich folklore, unique traditional music, theatre, cinema, and art. Georgians are renowned for their love of music, dance, theatre and cinema. In the 20th century there have been notable Georgian painters such as Niko Pirosmani, Lado Gudiashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; ballet choreographers such as George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani, and Nino Ananiashvili; poets such as Galaktion Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and theatre and film directors such as Robert Sturua, Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia and Otar Ioseliani.[132] [edit] Architecture and arts Senaki State Theater in Senaki, is an example of neoclassical style with elements of baroque in Georgia. Architect Vakhtang Gogoladze. Georgian architecture has been influenced by many civilizations. There are several different architectural styles for castles, towers, fortifications and churches. The Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of Shatili in Khevsureti, are some of the finest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture. Other architectural aspects of Georgia include Rustaveli avenue in Tbilisi in the Hausmann style, and the Old Town District. Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most fascinating aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines classical dome style with original basilica style forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia: Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), Iviron monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century). The art of Georgia spans the prehistoric, the ancient Greek, Roman, medieval, ecclesiastic, iconic and modern visual arts. One of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian artists is the primitivist painter Niko Pirosmani. [edit] Cuisine Main article: Georgian cuisine Georgian poets Ilia Chavchavadze and Akaki Tsereteli. Georgian cuisine and wine have evolved through the centuries, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most unusual traditions of dining is Supra, or Georgian table, which is also a way of socialising with friends and family. The head of Supra is known as Tamada. He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example, Khinkali (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, and Khachapuri, mainly from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara. In addition to traditional Georgian dishes, the foods of other countries have been brought to Georgia by immigrants from Russia, Greece, and recently China. [edit] Religion Main article: Religion in Georgia (country) The Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church is one of the world's most ancient Christian Churches, founded in the 1st century by the Apostle Andrew the First Called. In the first half of the 4th century Christianity was adopted as the state religion. This has provided a strong sense of national identity that has helped to preserve a national Georgian identity despite repeated periods of foreign occupation and attempted assimilation. One of the oldest churches in Christendom, the Jvari church in Mtskheta, Georgia’s ancient capital.[133] According to the Constitution of Georgia, religious institutions are separate from government and every citizen has the right of religion. Most of the population of Georgia (83.9%) practices Orthodox Christianity and the Georgian Orthodox Church is an influential institution in the country.[123] The Gospel was preached in Georgia by the Apostles, Andrew, Simon the Canaanite, and Matthias. Iberia was officially converted to Christianity in 326[134] by Saint Nino of Cappadocia, who is considered to be the Enlightener of Georgia and the Equal to Apostles by the Orthodox Church. The Georgian Orthodox Church, once being under the See of Antioch, gained an autocephalous status in the 4th century during the reign of King Vakhtang Gorgasali.[134] Religious minorities of Georgia include Russian Orthodox (2%), Armenian Christians (3.9%), Muslims (9.9%), Roman Catholics (0.8%), as well as sizeable Jewish communities and various Protestant minorities.[100] Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia,[135] there have been several instances of religious discrimination in the past decade — such as acts of violence against Jehovah's Witnesses and threats against adherents of other "nontraditional faiths" by followers of the defrocked Orthodox priest Vasil Mkalavishvili.[136]  Home  History & Nature  Services & Facilities  Park Trails  Surrounding Region  Links & Books  Accommodation  Contact   A Magnicifent Part of the Caucasus The Borjomi-Kharagauli National Park is located in central Georgia and is part of the lesser Caucasus. The park is one of the largest in Europe - it covers more than 85,000 hectares of native forest and sub-alpine and alpine meadows, home to rare species of flora and fauna. A network of trails invites you to experience the stunning variety of blossoming plants, breathtaking views and a magical atmosphere. In addition to the untouched beauty of the National Park, the surrounding villages are rich with medieval history, cottage industries and legendary Georgian hospitality.