Parthian Fortresses of Nisa*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
State Party	Turkmenistan
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iii
Reference	1242
Region**	Asia and Australasia
Inscription history
Inscription	2007  (31st Session)
Location of Nisa, Turkmenistan in Turkmenistan
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List. ** Region as classified by UNESCO.

History of Iran see also Kings of Persia · Timeline of Iran [show]Before Common Era Prehistory Proto-Elamite period 3200–2800 Elamite dynasty 2800–550 Kassites 16th–12th cent. Mannaeans 10th–7th cent. Median Empire 728–550 Achaemenid Empire 550–330 Seleucid Empire 330–150 Parthian Empire 248 BCE–226 CE [show]Common Era Sassanid Empire 226–651 Islamic conquest 637–651 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Alavid dynasty 864–928 Sajid dynasty 889/890–929 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Samanid dynasty 875–999 Ziyarid dynasty 928–1043 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Sallarid 942–979 Ma'munids 995-1017 Ghaznavid Empire 963–1187 Ghori dynasty 1149–1212 Seljuq dynasty 1037–1194 Khwarezmid dynasty 1077–1231 Ilkhanate 1256–1353 Muzaffarid dynasty 1314–1393 Chupanid dynasty 1337–1357 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Jalayerid dynasty 1339–1432 Timurid dynasty 1370–1506 Qara Qoyunlu 1407–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1378–1508 Safavid dynasty 1501–1722/36 Hotaki dynasty 1722–1729 Afsharid dynasty 1736–1750 Zand dynasty 1750–1794 Qajar dynasty 1781–1925 Pahlavi dynasty 1925–1979 Interim Government 1979–1980 Islamic Republic since 1980 edit

Nisa (also Parthaunisa) was an ancient city, located near modern-day Bagir village, 18 km northwest of Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. Nisa is described by some as one of the first capitals of the Parthians. It was traditionally founded by Arsaces I (reigned c. 250 BC–211 BC), and was reputedly the royal necropolis of the Parthian kings, although it has not been established that the fortress at Nisa was either a royal residence nor a mausoleum.

[edit] Excavations

Coin of Mithridates I (R. 171-138 BCE). The reverse shows Heracles, and the inscription "Great King Arsaces, friend of Greeks".

Marble Statue of Aphrodite, unearthed in Nisa. National Museum of Turkmenistan.

Excavations at Nisa have revealed substantial buildings, mausoleums and shrines, many inscribed documents, and a looted treasury. Many Hellenistic art works have been uncovered, as well as a large number of ivory rhytons, the outer rims (coins) decorated with Iranian subjects or classical mythological scenes.

Nisa was later renamed Mithradatkirt ("fortress of Mithradates") by Mithridates I of Parthia (reigned c. 171 BC–138 BC).

Nisa was totally destroyed by an earthquake, which occurred during the first decade BC.

The fortress at Nisa was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007.^[1]

History of Turkmenistan

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Turkmenistan
This article is part of the series: History of Turkmenistan
Early History
A Turkmen Nation
Turkmenistan under the USSR
Since Independence

While the ancient history of TurkmenistanIndo-EuropeanIranian tribesEurasianProto-Indo-EuropeansAltaicMassagatae, Scythians/Sakas, and early SoghdiansKhwarezmiansMesopotamia, Elam, and the Indus Valley Civilization.

The region's written history begins with the region's conquest by the Achaemenid Empireancient Iran, as the region was divided between the satrapysMargiana, ChorasmiaParthia. Later conquerors included Alexander the Great, the Parni, Ephthalites, Huns, Göktürks, Sarmatians, and SassanidZoroastrianismBuddhismMuslimArabsOghuz Turks. The vast majority of inhabitants were converted to the SunniIslam, while the OghuzTurkicTurkmen languageSeljuks. Genghis KhanMongolMiddle Ages, but their hold upon the area was transitional as later Timur LengUzbeksModern Turkmenistan was radically transformed by the invasion of the Russian Empire, which conquered the region in the late 19th century. Later, the Russian Revolution of 1917totalitarianLeninistSovietSaparmurat Niyazov, a former local communist party boss, declared himself absolute ruler for life as TurkmenbashiLeader of the Turkmen and transitioned the newly independent Turkmenistan into an authoritarian state under his absolute control and has thus far resisted the democratization that has influenced many of the other former Soviet Republics. Niyazov ruled until his death on December 21, 2006.

Contents [hide] 1 Ancient history 2 Arab invasion and Islamization 3 Oghuz tribes 4 Seljuks 5 Mongols and Timurids 6 New Political Arrangements 7 Turkmenistan in the 16th and 17th centuries 8 Russian Colonization and Great Game 9 Revolution and Civil War 10 Soviet Union 11 Independence and Turkmenbashi 12 Recent history 13 See also 14 Notes 15 Literary sources

[edit] Ancient history

The Persian Empire around 500 BC

The territory of TurkmenistanMerv, where traces of human settlements have been found. Tribes of horse-breeding Iranian ScythiansKarakumdesertIran, Syria, and Anatolia.

The scant remains point to some sparse settlements in the region, including possibly early neanderthals, but the region as a whole remains largely unexplored.[1]Bronze AgeIron AgeTurkmenistanDjeitun and Gonur Tepe.[2]^{[3]Alexander the GreatSouth Asia. In 330 BC, Alexander marched northward into Central AsiaMervMarySeleucidsParthians- fierce, nomadic warriors from the north of Iran —then established the kingdom of Parthia, which covered present-day Turkmenistan and Iran. The Parthian kings ruled their domain from the city of NisaAshgabatExcavations at Nisa have revealed substantial buildings, mausoleums and shrines, many inscribed documents, and a looted treasury. Many Hellenistic art works have been uncovered, as well as a large number of ivory rhytons, the outer rims decorated with Iranian subjects or classical mythological scenes.}

The Parthian Kingdom succumbed in 224 AD to the SasanidsIran. At the same time, several tribal groups—including the AlansHunsTurkmenistan[edit] Arab invasion and Islamization

At this time much of the population was already in settlements around the fertile river valleys along the Amu Darya, and MervNisasericultureTang DynastyChinaBaghdadCentral Asia came under Arab control after a series of invasions in the late 7th and early 8th centuries and was incorporated into Islamic CaliphateMawara'un Nahr and Khorasan. The Arab conquest brought Islamic religion to all of the peoples of central Asia. The city of Merv was occupied by lieutenants of the caliph Uthman ibn Affan, and was constituted as the capital of Khorasan. Using this city as their base, the Arabs, led by Qutayba ibn Muslim, brought under subjection Balkh, Bokhara, FerganaKashgaria, and penetrated into China as far as the province of Kan-suhMerv achieved some political spotlight in February 748 when Abu MuslimAbbasidIn the latter part of the 8th century Merv became obnoxious to Islam as the centre of heretical propaganda preached by al-Muqanna "The Veiled Prophet of Khorasan". In 874 Arab rule in Central Asia came to an end. During their dominion Merv, like SamarkandYaqutHadith, history, literature, and the like. Several scholars have the name: Marwazi (المروزي) designating them as hailing from Merv.

[edit] Oghuz tribes

The origins of the TurkmenOghuzLake BaikalAral SeaMahmud al-Kashgari[4]First mention of Oghuz goes back to the time prior to the GöktürkOghuzAltay Mountains. During the establishment of the GöktürkTulaOghuz expansion by means of military campaigns went at least as far as the Volga RiverUral Mountains, but the geographic limits of their dominance fluctuated in the steppe areas extending north and west from the Aral Sea. Accounts of Arab geographers and travelers portray the Oghuz ethnic group as lacking centralized authority and being governed by a number of "kings" and "chieftains." Because of their disparate nature as a polity and the vastness of their domains, Oghuz tribes rarely acted in concert. Hence, by the late tenth century, the bonds of their confederation began to loosen. At that time, a clan leader named Seljuk founded a dynasty and the empire that bore his name on the basis of those Oghuz elements that had migrated southward into present-day Turkmenistan and Iran. The Seljuk Empire was centered in Persia, from which Oghuz groups spread into Azerbaijan and Anatolia.[4]After the fall of Göktürk kingdom, Oghuz tribes migrated to the area of Transoxiana, in western Turkestan, in modern Kazakhstan and Kirghizstan. This land became known as the "Oghuz steppe" which is an area between the Caspian and Aral Seas. Ibn al-Athir, an Arab historian, stated that the Oghuz Turks had come to Transoxiana in the period of the caliph Al-MahdiAbbasidAl-Ma'munKarlukOghuzThe name Turkmen first appears in written sources of the tenth century to distinguish those Oghuz groups who migrated south into the Seljuk domains and accepted Islam from those that had remained in the steppe. Gradually, the term took on the properties of an ethnonym and was used exclusively to designate Muslim Oghuz, especially those who migrated away from the Syrdariya Basin. By the thirteenth century, the term Turkmen supplanted the designation Oghuz altogether. The origin of the word Turkmen remains unclear. According to popular etymologies as old as the eleventh century, the word derives from Turk plus the Iranian element manand, and means "resembling a Turk." Modern scholars, on the other hand, have proposed that the element man /men acts as an intensifier and have translated the word as "pure Turk" or "most Turk-like of the Turks."[4][edit] Seljuks

In the eleventh century, SeljukSeljuk TurksSeljuk, to the throne of Iran, founding the Seljukid dynasty, with its capital at Nishapur. A younger brother of Toghrul, Daud, took possession of MervToghrulAlp ArslanMervBaghdad, becoming masters of the Islamic heartlands and important patrons of Islamic institutions. Until these revolts, Turkmen tribesmen were an integral part of the Seljuk military forces. Turkmen migrated with their families and possessions on Seljuk campaigns into Azerbaijan and Anatolia, a process that began the Turkification of these areas. During this time, Turkmen also began to settle the area of present-day Turkmenistan. Prior to the Turkmen habitation, most of this desert had been uninhabited, while the more habitable areas along the Caspian Sea, Kopetdag Mountains, Amu Darya, and Murgap RiverMervSilk Road.[4]Sanjar[4]Turkmen.

The Seljuk empire broke down in the second half of the 12th century, and the Turkmen became independent tribal federation.

[edit] Mongols and Timurids

In 1157, the rule of Seljuks dynasty came to an end in the province of Khorasan. The Turkic rulers of Khiva took control of the area of Turkmenistan, under the title of KhwarezmshahsMongol

Map of the Timurid Empire

Under their commander, Genghis Khan, the Mongols conquered KhwarezmSmall, semi-independent states arose under the rule of the region's tribal chiefs later in 14 century. In the 1370s, Amir Timur (known as Tamerlane in Europe),one of the greatest conquerors in human history, captured Turkmen states once more and established the short lived Timurid Empire, which collapsed after Timur's death in 1405, when Turkmens became independent once again.

[edit] New Political Arrangements

As a whole, the 14th to 16th century was a period in which the Turkmen's dislocation due to the Mongol invasions gave way to new political groupings which became tribal groupings which have continued to modern day.[5]In addition to the new political arrangements, historical sources suggest that a large tribal union called the Salor confederationYomudTekeKopetdag MountainsMurgap RiverAmu DaryaTurkmenistan. Salor groups also live in Turkey, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and China.[5][edit] Turkmenistan in the 16th and 17th centuries

Portrait of Magtymguly Pyragy.

The history of Turkmenistan from the 16th until the 19th century is mostly known by the relations with the states of Iran, Khiva, and Bukhara.[5]Abul Gazi Bahadur Khan, from 1645 to 1663, caused some difficulties to the Turkmens, coupled with the impact of the drought that occurred at about the same period, most of the Turkmens within the khanate moved to areas around Akhal, Atrek, Murgap and Tedjen. In this period, many of the Turkmens tribes living around the Lake Aral left also migrated because of pressures from both the Khanate of Khiva and the KalmyksPopular epics such as Korogly, and other oral traditions, took shape during this period which could be taken as a beginning of Turkmen nation. The poets and thinkers of the time such as Devlet Mehmed Azadi and MakhtumkuliMakhtumkuli[edit] Russian Colonization and Great Game

In the 18th century Turkoman tribes came into contact with Tsarist Empire. The Russian Empire began to move into the area in 1869 with the establishment of the Caspian SeaTurkmenbashy.[6]. After the suppression of Bukhara and Khiva emirate, Russians decided to move into Transcaspian[6]Mikhail Skobelev, and in 1881 fighting climaxed with the massacre of 7,000 Turkmen at the desert fortress of Geok Depe, near modern Ashgabat; another 8,000 were killed trying to flee across the desert. By 1894 imperial Russia had taken control of all of Turkmenistan.

The TranscaspianPendjehAfghanistan, which nearly led to war with Britain1.[7]Afghanistan. Until 1898 Transcaspia was part of the Governor-Generalship of the Caucasus and administered from Tiflis, but in that year it was made an Oblast of Russian TurkestanTashkent. Nevertheless Turkestan remained an isolated colonial outpost, with an administration that preserved many distinctive features from the previous Islamic regimes, including Qadis' courts and a 'native' administration that devolved much power to local 'Aksakals' (Elders). In 1897 the Transcaspian Railway reached Tashkent, and finally in 1906 a direct rail link with European Russia was opened across the steppe from Orenburg to Tashkent. This led to much larger numbers of Slavic settlers flowing into Turkestan than had hitherto been the case, and their settlement was overseen by a specially created Migration Department in St. Petersburg (Переселенческое Управление). This caused considerable discontent amongst the local Turkmen population, as mainly Russian-populated cities such as AshgabatThe best-known Military Governor to have ruled the region from Ashkhabad was probably General Kuropatkin, whose authoritarian methods and personal style of governance made the province very difficult for his successors to control and led to a revolt in 1916. Consequently the administration of Transcaspia became a byword for corruption and brutality within Russian Turkestan, as Russian administrators turned their districts into petty fiefdoms and extorted money from the local population. In 1908 Count Konstantin Konstantinovich Pahlen led a reforming commission to Turkestan which produced a monumental report detailing these abuses of power, administrative corruption and inefficiency.

[edit] Revolution and Civil War

Following the October RevolutionAshgabatBolshevikTashkentSoviet. The Communists succeeded in taking control of Ashkhabad in the summer of 1918, forming a Soviet. In response, JunaidBritish26 Baku CommissairesBasmachiBolshevik[edit] Soviet Union

In 1924, the Turkestan ASSR was dissolved, and the Turkmen SSRrepublicsSoviet Union. At this time the modern borders of Turkmenistan were formed. The Turkmen SSR was under full control of Moscow, which exploited its raw materials resources for the purposes of the Soviet Union. Sovereigntycollective farms, and destroy their religion, Turkman basmachi staged guerrilla warfare against the communist government until 1936. More than a million Turkmen fled into exile in Afghanistan or Iran. Of the 441 mosques that existed in Turkmenistan in 1911, only 5 remained open in 1941. In the meantime, the ethnic balance of Turkmenistan was altered by an influx of thousands of Russian immigrants from other parts of the Soviet Union.

Soviets renamed AshgabatIn the 1950s, the 1375 kilometer long Qaraqum CanalAmu-DaryacottontugaiAral Sea, resulting in an ecological catastrophe.

Turkmenistan remained one of the most economically and socially backward republics in USSR, with largely agrarian economy, despite exploration and exploitation of enormous oil and gas resources - discovery of 62 trillion cubic feetDawletabadgas field[edit] Independence and Turkmenbashi

Turkmenistan became independent on October 27, 1991, amidst the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The former head of Turkmenistan's Communist Party at the time of independence, Saparmurad Niyazov, was elected president of the newly independent nation in an uncontested election. The authoritarian Niyazov, who has assumed the title of "Turkmenbashi", or "Leader of all Turkmen", was accused of developing a totalitarian cult of personality. His opus, the Ruhnama, is a mandatory reading in Turkmenistan's schools and months of the calendar have been renamed after members of his family. Opposition parties are banned in Turkmenistan and the government controls all sources of information. In December 1999, Turkmenistan's constitutionNiyazov was the main proponent of Turkmenistan's constitutional neutrality. Under this policy, Turkmenistan does not participate in any military alliance and does not contribute to United Nations monitoring forces. This in fact means an internal isolation of Turkmenistan from world politics.

In late 2004, Niyazov met with former Canadian Prime Minister Jean ChrétienIn 2005, Niyazov announced that his country would downgrade its links with the Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose alliance of post-Soviet states; he furthermore promised free and fair elections by 2010 in a move that surprised many Western observers.

Niyazov acknowledged having heart disease in November 2006. On December 21, 2006, Niyazov died unexpectedly, leaving no heir-apparent and an unclear line of succession. A former deputy prime minister rumored to be the illegitimate son of Niyazov,[1]Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, became acting president, although under the constitution the Chairman of the People's Council, Öwezgeldi Ataýew, should have succeeded to the post. However, Ataýew was accused of crimes and removed from office.

[edit] Recent history

In an electionGurbanguly Berdimuhamedow[2]Following his election, Berdimuhamedow moved to reduce foreign isolation and reversed some of Niyazov's more egocentric and damaging policies. Internet cafes offering free and uncensored Web access opened in Ashgabat,[8][9][10]President Berdimuhamedow began to reduce the personality cult surrounding Niyazov and the office of the president. He has called for an end to the elaborate pageants of music and dancing that formerly greeted the president on his arrival anywhere, and has said that the Turkmen "sacred oath", part of which states that the speaker's tongue should shrivel if he ever speaks ill of Turkmenistan or its president, should not be recited multiple times a day but reserved for "special occasions." Previously the oath was recited at the beginning and end of TV news reports, by students at the beginning of the school day, and at the beginning of virtually all meetings of any official nature that took place in the country.[11]However, Berdimuhamedow is criticized for building a personality cult of his own (albeit a modest one compared to his predecessor's). for example he is the only person whose first name is used in government press releases, other officials always have their first names abbreviated to a single letter. He is also sometimes called the "Turkmen leader" by his country's press.

On March 19, 2007, Berdimuhamedow reversed one of Niyazov's most unpopular decrees by giving pensions back to 100,000 elderly people whose pensions Niyazov had slashed in the face of an unspecified budget crisis.[12]On March 20, in a decision of significant symbolic weight in the ongoing rejection of Niyazov's personality cult, he abolished the power of the president to rename any landmarks, institutions, or cities.[13]On March 31, 2007, the 20th Congress of the Halk Maslahaty[14]On May 12, Russia and Turkmenistan announced that they had reached an agreement to build a new natural gas pipeline from Turkmenistan, through Kazakhstan to Russia. This has led to speculation that the European Union will become more energy-dependent on Russia, which buys Turkmen gas at below-market prices, and that as a result Russia's political influence in Eastern Europe may increase.[15]On May 16, in what has been described as one of his boldest moves yet, Berdimuhamedow sacked a high-ranking security official who had been instrumental in building and maintaining the late president Niyazov's extensive cult of personality. According to official Turkmen news media, Akmyrat Rejepow, the head of the presidential security service was removed from office by presidential decree and transferred to "another job." The nature of this job was not specified.[16]On June 14, Berdimuhamedow re-opened the Turkmen Academy of Sciences, which had been shut down by his predecessor.[17][18]Berdimuhamedow celebrated his 50th birthday on June 29, 2007. He was awarded the Watan Order[19]Recently, Berdimuhamedow has restored the names of the months and days of the week (Niyazov had renamed them after himself and his mother),[20]gold rotating statue[21][22]In September 2008, a new constitution was accepted by the People's Council.[23]Parliamentary elections[24]In December 2008, he also reversed the changes to the national anthem[25]   also

• History of Turkmenistan